Christian Israelite community Essay

The first main event that we learn of is the moment when the prophet informs the Christian Israelite community in Ashton that, â€Å"The Lord has instructed me to take of your number, seven virgins for comfort and succour†. Leah is the first girl who speaks to us, and the reader can find a somewhat humorous side to the event. Leah’s language in this, her first time of talking to us, makes her seem younger than she is; as she tries, â€Å"not to giggle†, she takes the information, and reacts to it as though it were gossip. Leah writes in the present tense; this gives the reader insight into her feelings at the very moment that she felt them, rather than looking back detachedly on what she felt. It is from Leah that we gain the first view of Mr Wroe who is â€Å"powerful†, at this point we do not know just how powerful, but later events give more supporting evidence of this comment. Leah also shows the reader how religious the sect was; she is unsure as to whether or not they would â€Å"make us pray all day†. Also we learn of how women were treated, Leah is locked in her room and guarded, and the girls do not have a choice over whether to go to Southgate – their parents offer them to the prophet. Joanna gives us a very religious view of the calling of the virgins, and other people may have also felt the same as she did about Mr Wroe and the sect. Joanna shows us that at this time in history, women were not really involved in religion, particularly within the Christian Israelites; she is thankful that â€Å"this is the sign the women are not forgot†. The event of selection shows that the women were indeed not forgotten, but being women they were forced to attend, and some â€Å"had to be clasped and held secure†. The severity of the women’s reactions to this event was great, and Ann Taylor (one who was chosen), tried to kill herself because she did not wish to join the Prophet’s household. Hannah sees this event differently to the others as she is an outsider, and unaccustomed to the rituals and beliefs of the Christian Israelites. However, both she and Leah show us that at this time, daughters were seen as a burden to their parents because they had to be married off and of course could not carry on the family name. Leah recognises that the girls’ parents would not â€Å"give the prophet a pretty daughter† who could easily be married, and Hannah feels as though she has been â€Å"handed over† to a crazy sect predicting the end of he world, with â€Å"less heart searching than they would undergo in parting with crust to a beggar†. Hannah is non-religious and also gives us a detached view of the prophet – whom she dislikes at first. She feels he’s rude and that the sect is primitive in their customs, particularly the elders who â€Å"resemble tribesman†. Hannah feels that she has been given â€Å"into the care of a lunati c band of would -be ancient Jews†. Rogers also goes into some detail about how Wroe spread the word about the Christian Israelites to the surrounding areas of Ashton. He used the girls to draw attention by their strange dress and, Hannah shows the reader how much power and influence he had on people. Rogers probably could not have known whether he had a deep attractive voice or not but she would have known that many converts joined the Christian Israelites and it was his charismatic leadership that caused this. Rogers gave Wroe characteristics that she felt would fit this role and make him seem (as far as possible), as he probably would have been. These views give us a good idea of what was involved at the beginning of this historical event. Although Wroe may have completely believed that what he was doing had religious significance, but we also see that his ideas, particularly around the seven virgins were verging on the surreal. Rogers uses this event to create literature by using both fact and fiction, bringing events in history into view and giving the reader a greater understanding of them. Like Rogers, Miller focuses on certain characters, as there are many characters in ‘The Crucible’ some play a larger parts in disclosing the events than others. Abigail seems to begin the hysteria by leading the girls into the forest and causing Betty to become â€Å"frightened and then she fainted†. John Proctor, Tituba, and Rebecca Nurse give evidence of three different views on the threat and outcome of being arrested. Also Reverend John Hale, who changes his mind about the alleged witchcraft in Salem. The other characters also give the reader information about events throughout the play; they show the reader how people were affected by the event. Lives stopped with the number of people in prison; land was going to waste and people found excuses not to work. For example Mary Warren, who neglects her duties to the Proctors claiming that she is â€Å"an official of the court†. Reverend Parris has a breakdown, and there is doubt as to who owns what because so many were dead. This was dire for the people of Salem, as due to the time, their survival leaned on that which grew on the land. With everything neglected, people were worried; rumours of rioting were spread to help to discontinue the court’s dictatorship. The three characters mentioned earlier as giving the reader an impression of the events, show three different reactions. Rebecca Nurse is very faithful to her religion, but will not become caught up in the hysteria; and when she herself is accused, she will not confess, â€Å"It is a lie; how may I damn myself? I cannot†. Rebecca Nurse is one of the most respected members of the community and her execution is part of the final crescendo in the play. Tituba takes a different viewpoint. She does not want to be punished or executed, and finds that pleading innocence only worsens her situation. She accepts the accusations and confesses, realising that lying would be the only escape, â€Å"I tell him I don’t desire to work for him†. Tituba may have been blamed for the girls’ behaviour because she was black, and a slave. An easy target for blame; black people were not socially accepted except as slaves, and were considered untrustworthy. John Proctor is probably the central character in the play, particularly in the fourth act, in which he attempts confession, but cannot name his friends; he is loyal and won’t lie to hurt them. This shows a view that is more sensible and although he is executed, Proctor tries to stop the court by admitting to his adultery with Abigail. But what really causes him to decide to give his life is that when the judges make him sign his confession they will publicise it. Proctor is distressed by this as, â€Å"I have given you my soul; leave me my name!†

Essays Essay Example

Essays Essay Example Essays Essay Essays Essay GROOSHAM GRANGEEXPELLEDIt was dinner time at wiernotta mews. Mr. and Mrs. Eliot were sitting at the dinner table with their only son, David. The meal that night had begun with a large plate of raw cabbage with cheese sauce because Mr. and Mrs. Eliot never ate meat. The atmosphere was distinctly chilly. That afternoon, the last day of the Christmas term, David had bought home his school report. It had not made pleasant reading.â€Å"ELIOT HAS NOT MADE PROGRESS†, the maths teacher had written. â€Å"HE CAN’T DIVIDE OR MULTIPLY AND WILL, I FEAR ADD UP TO EVERY LITTLE.†Ã¢â‚¬Å"WOODWORK?† the carpentry teacher had written. â€Å"I WISH HE WOULD WORK†Ã¢â‚¬Å"IF HE STAYED AWAKE IN CLASS IT WOULD BE A MIRACLE,† THE RELIGION TEACHER HAD COMPLAINED.â€Å"VERY POOR FORM, ‘the form master had concluded.â€Å"HE WILL NEVER GET AHEAD,† the headmaster had agreed.MR Eliot had read all these comments with growing anger. First his face had gone red. Then his fingers had gone white. The veins in his neck had gone blue and his tongue had gone black. Mrs. Eliot had been unsure whether to call a doctor or take a colour photograph, but in the end, and after taking several glasses of whisky, he had calmed downâ€Å"When I was a boy,† he moaned, â€Å"If my reports were not first class, my father would lock me in a cupboard for a week without food. â€Å" â€Å"Where did we go wrong Mrs Eliot sobbed, pulling at her mauve-tinted hair. â€Å"What will the neighbours say if they find? They will laugh at me! I am ruined!†Ã¢â‚¬Å"My father would have killed me if would have a report like this†Ã¢â‚¬ He would have tied me down to the railway crossing and waited for the charring cross..†Ã¢â‚¬Å"We could always pretend we haven’t got a son,† Mrs Eliot wailed â€Å"We could say he’s got a rare disease. We could say he fell off a cliff†As you will have gathered from all this, Mr and Mrs Elio t was not the best parents you could think or hope to have. Edward Eliot was a small fat bald man with a bristling moustache and a wart on his neck. He

How to Tell Your Parents You Want to Drop Out of College

How to Tell Your Parents You Want to Drop Out of College If you are considering dropping out of college, you likely have a good reason: personal, financial,  academic, or a combination of factors. Even though the benefits of dropping out may be clear to you, your parents may have some concerns, and talking to them about dropping out may not be easy. So where can you begin? What should you say? Be Honest Dropping out of college is a big deal, and your parents know this. Even if they suspected that this conversation was coming, they probably arent going to be too pleased about it. Consequently, you owe it to them- and yourself- to be honest about the main reasons driving your decision. Are you failing your classes? Not connecting socially with others? Feeling lost academically? Is the financial obligation too much to bear? If you expect to have an honest, adult conversation about dropping out, youll need to contribute your own honesty and maturity as well. Be Specific General statements, like I just dont like it, I dont want to be there, and I just want to come home, may be accurate, but theyre vague and therefore not very helpful. Additionally, your parents may not know how to respond to these kinds of general statements other than to tell you to get back to class. If, however, youre more specific- I need some time off from school to figure out what I want to study, I need a break right now academically and intellectually, Im concerned about how much this is costing- both you and your parents can have a constructive conversation about your concerns. Explain What Dropping Out Will Accomplish Dropping out has such a heavy feel to it because it is a very serious choice. To assuage their concerns, discuss with your parents what dropping out will accomplish. True, youll leave your current situation, but then what? While withdrawing from your current college or university might be appealing, it should be only one step in a longer, carefully thought-out process. What will you do instead? Will you work? Travel? Aim to re-enroll in a semester or two? The conversation should not just be about leaving college; it should also include what youre planning to do next. Be Aware of the Consequences Your parents will likely have a lot of questions for you about whats going to happen if you drop out. What are the financial consequences going to be? When will you have to start paying back your student loans, or can you put them on deferment? What will happen to the loan and grant money youve already accepted for this term? What about your lost credits? Can you re-enroll at your institution at a later time, or will you have to reapply for admission? What obligations will you still have for your living arrangements? While your heart and mind might be set on dropping out and leaving your current situation, your parents can be great resources for helping you keep your focus on whats most important. The key, however, is to fully engage and work in partnership with them to make the transition as painless as possible for everyone involved.

Compare and contrast skinner and moore's different views Essay

Compare and contrast skinner and moore's different views - Essay Example So experiment and observation, highly empirical they are, but would therefore make sense. It is only through doing these based on Skinner’s point that we could understand when a certain thing happens, another thing should follow. This means things we see now are results of something happen, so there must something happening before we see things as they are. This means further that an internal psychological state exists only then that we could exactly determine it, but based on Skinner’s claim we could be certain it certainly does exist. Thus, Skinner is compelled to believe we have no free will, because there is â€Å"technology† of human behavior that controls us, and there are forces around us that cause us to create our choice or determine our behavior. Based on these, Skinner has two conflicting views: we have no control over our actions; we ought to behave in a certain way, which only implies we have choices to make, so at some point we are given the chance to control our actions. Determinism at this case seems to become incompatible with ethics, as Skinner believes forces around could either shape people as good or something else. Moore’s soft determinism According to Moore’s point of view influenced by soft determinism, hard determinism of Skinner seems to be incompatible with ethics as it could be claimed people may not be held responsible for their actions. Moore believes that a person without free will has no moral obligations. So in Moore’s point of view, Skinner must be denying something intuitive. As Moore would want to point out, the word â€Å"could† only implies we really have choices to take. That is, an able person seeing somebody drowning could either save that person or not under certain circumstance. For Moore it is morally right to save life, as this is what the moral society dictates. However, a person could also choose not to save someone else’s life and accept what the moral societ y will have to say as a result of such action. Here where Moore clearly wants to point out people have free will. Everyone â€Å"could† choose to do things, so we are left with choices. Analysis It is clear on the point of Skinner that external forces are the ones creating our choices. So Skinner is convinced there is no way we could have free will because forces around us have already predetermined our actions. At this point, Moore’s claim that we have free will cannot be compatible with the idea that we could choose for ourselves choices to take as they are already predetermined. If Skinner’s point is right, much better than Moore’s, then the two of them might be arguing something that did not exist at all and significantly undetermined. We have therefore to note that Skinner and Moore are trying to believe in the premise that â€Å"everything always being caused,† which is the very idea of determinism. This means everything we do is predetermine d. Moore’s claim could therefore create a point if free will, based on Skinner’s point of view is something that exists and a strong influential force that could determine choices or actions of people. However, if free will is something that is also predetermined, then it could create certain actions, which according to Skinner must be predetermined as well. In this case, it is relevant and valid when Skinner would claim external forces

Is Competition Necessary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Is Competition Necessary - Essay Example Therefore, competition determines who is to undertake a certain duty and assigns people their respective status or place in the social realm. For instance, some people compete with others with the aim of retaining their social status while others compete in order to attain new social status. Competition is necessary in society in that outperforming others is healthy since the person who is smart manages to get the best. Competition is really necessary because it acts a motivation in that it challenges people to have an objective and a goal that encourages or motivates them to attain more that the other person. This in turn makes the person to explore different ways available in order to beat others. In addition, competition brings more imaginative and creative thinking since a person is inspired where there is a challenge to overcome certain issues. Additionally, it offers the determination to continue without interference or undeterred. With this in mind, a person is able to recogni ze others in that he or she respects that different people have distinct abilities and skills (Fullick 36-7). Therefore, people ought to compete in a manner that motivates them positively not negatively even if it means against themselves and their own past successes. For instance, in classroom setting, some children posses’ different potentials and ways of learning, therefore, finding an good way to motivate them may involve a competitive aspect but it has be chosen wisely or else it can have negative effect and de-motivate students. In addition, competition brings people of different levels, aspirations, ages, and desired objectives or goals. Due to this, some individuals may be in a competition for social purposes. Competition is significant in that presents some life lessons. This is based on the argument that life can be hard and tough at times. For example, applying for jobs or participating in marathon or any discipline where there are many losers than winners. People are able to learn from it in that they relish chance or opportunity to do their best and find ways to enhance and improve in order to emerge winner the next time. More so, people will learn to cope with disappointment by congratulating the winner for outperforming him or her and candidly appreciating the abilities and talents of others while looking forward for the next chance (Porter 32-3). For instance, competition can make an individual enjoy freedom and mobility in that the spirit of competition assists individuals to enhance and improve their social status. On the same threshold, competition offers an individual good opportunity to satisfy their needs for new experience and better recognition in the society. Competition is also necessary in that it challenges an individual to go an extra mile when competing with other people. For instance, when people set their eyes on the price, they are able to put in more energy and enthusiasm which motivates them to carry on. Individuals ar e often ready to look for an extra reserve of determination and stamina to work through and carry on with the competition (Fullick 23). Competition has proved to be helpful in that it helps people to find resources they never had. In this case, competition requires critical thinking by exploring ways that can help one succeed. More so, it regularly

Economic degrowth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economic degrowth - Essay Example This is a good sign of economic degrowth. In terms of enhancing consumers’ health, the working condition of the workers, and preserving the available economic and natural resources for future generations, the transition stage from economic growth to degrowth is one of the most unique political breakthrough that took place in the United States (Latouche, 2007). In line with this, Kennedy (2010) explained that cities that is undergoing degrowth process is characterized by a limited population density and self-sufficient even though there was a shift from urbanization to rural way of living. In general, the population of cities that is undergoing degrowth process is usually below 10,000 residents per city (Bliss, 2011; Reinhardt, 2011). Depending on the size of geographic area, population size of degrowth cities can be less than 50,000 (Mathivet, 2009). Because of the limited production and consumption of goods, cities that are focused on degrowth are the ones that could preserve their existing natural resources and energy resources without sacrificing the standards of living of people living in these cities. Q.2 How may this area be influenced by degrowth? At the end of the document you will see a table with your name appearing alongside a particular theme (transport, housing, multifunctional urbanism, decision making processes, use of environmental technologies.) What area have you been invited to focus on: Housing Inflation rate in the United Kingdom has significantly increased from 3.0 up to 5.0 between January 2009 up to January 2011 respectively (National Statistics, 2011). Because of the increasing trend in the annual CPI inflation rate and interest rates in the US and UK market, the selling price of single detach houses has been significantly increasing over the past few years (Nordvik and Gulbrandsen, 2009). In 2001, there were as much as 215,000 companies building roughly 146,000 single-detached houses (Glaeser, 2004). As a consequence in the high market prices of single detached houses, there is a shift from the demand for expensive single detached houses to low-cost and more affordable multi-unit housing projects such as townhouses, apartment buildings, dormitories, or condominium units (Murray, 2011; Reference for Business, 2011; Johanisova, Crabtree, and Frankova, 2010; Glaeser, 2004). In line with this, there are some constructors who are already designing multi-unit housing projects using low-cost pre-fabricated housing materials (Reference for Business, 2011). There are socio-economic advantages associated with the shift from single-detached houses to multi-unit houses. First, it is possible to increase the supply of affordable housing units to meet the increasing population in US and UK (Glaeser, 2004). Aside from effectively protecting the environment from the adverse consequences of consuming too much electricity, degrowth in the housing industry is also more economical on the part of the consumers in terms of decr easing the cost of maintaining the quality of small-unit houses (Crawford and Heller, 2010; Register, 2010). Q.3 What has already been envisaged or put in practice that would be welcomed by a de-growth society? Give some examples and indicate the impact/ results of these 'alternatives' (e.g. from slow-cities to the setting up of autonomous communities and the recuperation of community; from

Concept of Crosswall Construction for Earthquake Hazards

Concept of Crosswall Construction for Earthquake Hazards 1. INTRODUCTION The aim of this report is to understand the basic concept of crosswall construction, and a proposal for Armature Crosswalls to be used as earthquake hazard mitigation for reinforced concrete and masonry infill-wall buildings vulnerable to collapse. RC frame and infill construction is common throughout the world and often has proved lethal in earthquakes. The paper traces the history of masonry infill construction from pre-modern forms that have shown earthquake resistance in the past, to the early modern steel skeleton frame buildings that survived the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. the construction flow at real time in step by step procedures and quantifying the benefits and studying their applications. This is done by making a comparison in usage of the same technique in two different countries namely India and the United Kingdom. This comparison is aimed at producing an insight into the technique and to identify the areas of improvement. 2. Crosswall construction 2.1 Definition: Crosswall is a modern method of building construction using division walls which transfers the floor loads through the building to the foundations. The name crosswall itself signifies the masonry connection is on either sides of the main wall. It employs concrete components like lift and stair cores, precision engineered (highly skilled), and precasted in the factories. 2.2 Applications: This type of pre-cast single-skin or flat panel concrete construction is becoming more popular in commercial applications such as hotels, motels, prisons, military barracks and student accommodations. These types of structures up to 16 storeys have been finished in U.K using the crosswall technique. The use of such panels can result in fast, simple construction process on site followed quickly by finishing trades. Crosswall is mainly used for medium and high rise buildings. 2.3 Benefits: Cross wall construction method reduces the wet trades and creates very early dry boxes for subsequent trades. This helps in speeding up the construction process without delay in work. Crosswalls also helps to eliminate internal cladding and other items such as party walls because the concrete crosswalls and floors do more than load carrying system. Crosswall technique reduces the labour onsite. A precast panel provides concrete frames without structural down stands. Cross wall construction which has been developed for providing very fast and high quality in repetitive accommodation units such as hotels and the opportunity for multi storey apartments is rising, student accommodation buildings, stadiums etc. but the crosswall technique optimisation in low rise buildings is minimal(single houses) because the dimensions of each room may not be the similar. The Crosswall construction is incorporated with a series of both horizontal and vertical ties which are designed in such a way to prevent the failures and collapses according to building specifications. Other precast work can be started simultaneously before the precast units are erected. The crosswall buildings have less maintenance service and have good acoustics values. The acoustic performance of crosswall is excellent because of its mass and effective damping. Crosswalls reduces the risks of failing pre completion acoustic tests. (The Concrete Centre, 2006) Pre cast walls and floor units are more than just a structure (highly effective in costs, speed, early start for other trades, and provision of fire separation panels), wall panels are provided with good finish and air tight tolerance. Tight tolerance enables fitting of bathroom pods, carpets and built in furniture. Flat pack construction is very quick and cost effective because it reduces the material waste on the site and the party walls are largely eliminated. The separation of acoustics and additional finishes are reduced as the wall panels provide the sufficient airborne noise separation. Thermal mass is provided by concrete and the thermal is utilised in crosswall constructions because the concrete widely spreads on the unfinished surfaces and the thermal mass reduces the risk of over heating in summer season by keeping the surrounding cool.( Doebber, Ellis M.W; 2005) The main features incorporated in cross wall construction are Direct decorative finish to the walls with only minor pre decoration treatments. Solid room sized slabs pre finished for direct ceiling decorations. Reduced structural zone without downstands. Cross wall system generally utilises stair cores and lift cores for overall stability. Pre fitted windows eliminates internal cladding. Optimal methods of floor construction, allowing flexibility for individual client requirements. Construction of stairs and lift cores can permit early access for subsequent trades. (The Concrete Centre, 2007) 2.4 Limitations: In spite of several benefits offered by the precast panels, it has found that there is no wide acceptance of the precast panels in construction because of Highly skilled engineers or labours are required for manufacturing, placing and erecting the moulds on required positions. Lack of awareness and initiatives especially in Indian construction industry because of invariable labour intensive methods which leads to delay in the construction and that result in cost over-run and poor workmanship. Shortage of skilled and semi-skilled personnel availability may bring poor finishes, leakages in the buildings, corrosion of structural elements. These defects can be only minimised by the use of mass scale projects such as schools, offices, hospitals and other similar projects.(A.B.Shah,2005) Precast wall panel construction may be more or equal expensive as masonry construction because it mainly depends upon the transportation of offsite fabricated materials to onsite. (Havel.G, 2006) Difficult to transport heavy weight and size of the precast panels. The profit margin is very low in the small scale constructions. For single and two storey dwellings it would be typical to use single storey height walls panels between 90-300mm thick concrete for external walls and 70-100mm thick panels for the internal walls. The variation in designs leads to the problem and the single housing clients are not happy with the precast technique even though it provides a higher quality and good finish. This crosswall technique is mostly used for large repetitive structures may not be used for small scale construction like individual housing because the crosswall is more expensive tool when compared. (Glass.J, 2000) 2.4.1 Fire Conditions: The building with large precast wall panels often has high ceilings and heavy fire loadings, as in retail stores, factories and warehouses. The fire in one of these occupancies require large volumes of water from large lines, if the fire is not controlled master stream appliances will be needed. The fire in large precast buildings is likely to cause an early collapse of the roofs even if they are no weak connections. In this type of precast panel construction all the parts of the building are tied together as part of a structure, the roof collapses are more likely to tip the walls inwards and outwards. As we know, the roof supports are more securely connected to the walls, the chances of roof collapsing is high before the wall connection fails. The failure of any part of the structure may affect the stability of the other parts of the building. (Havel.G, 2006) 3. Historical background: The precast concrete wall panel system was devised in England by William H.Lascelles (1832-85) of Exeter. In 19th century the pre-casting concrete for the structural purposes was started. Francois Hennebique (1842-1921) first introduced precast concrete into cast in-situ flour mill in France. White and Morris had given the historical accounts of the early development on precast concrete. (Elliot.K.S; 2000) Later in 1930s the use of precast as been expanded by companies such as Bison, Trent concrete and girling. Whilst precast concrete usage was stand at the first place it differs from country to country. One of the reason was the structural timber became more limited in some of the countries which led to development and improvement of precast usage. During the next 25 years the development in the precast frames, precast cladding as increased the market share to around 15% in industrial, commercial sectors. (Richardson.J.G, 1973) Since the 1990s, a significant amount of research has been conducted on the seismic behavior and the design of precast wall paneled structures that do not emulate the behavior of cast-in-place reinforced concrete construction. 4.Development Of Precast Concrete Panel Frame Systems: Precast panel frame systems have been successfully emerged from the research use of post tensioning between the precast beam and columns to achieve the lateral load resistance needed in seismic areas. (Seismic design of friction-damped precast concrete frame structure) For the Docklands project on constructing student accommodation blocks in London, the concrete was prefabricated in Belgium and transported because the northern Europe was only able to cope up with the demands of the project and other small local markets were tightened. Precast concrete wall panels in buildings speeds up the building process by adopting the precast concrete moulds. Decorative and light weight blocks have a great to offer visual values and technical values. The small store buildings from the precast industries offer excellent means of construction within the budget. The farm buildings, ware houses, industrial buildings are required to be constructed on exposed sites so the materials of standard precast frame components are supplied. Precasting of simple lintels offers opportunities of time saving on the site. The schools, universities are built by using the precast modular components. 4.1 Comparison of Conventional and Large precast panel Construction (Shah.A.B, 2005) The above table clearly signifies the benefits of large precast construction over conventional construction methods in various fields. 4.2 Structural Superiority: The precast panel structural system can be quiet efficient compared to other systems and it was tested and proven. (Fintel.M, July1991). In cast in-situ concrete structures, the large stresses may built up in the structure due to the curing, shrinkage, creep, temperature etc. However no such stresses are built in large precast panel systems during casting. Due to these special characteristics of large panels it has proved its efficiency for more than 50 years in Europe, America and other developed countries. (Shah.A.B, 2005) 5. Precast Concrete Panel Manufacture Process 5.1 Casting: Precast concrete panels can be manufactured by various casting methods. 5.1.1 Wet casting : It is generally used for small number of units having similar specifications. The moulds are manufactured by heating them in the enclosed and covered zones. Skilled engineers design the type of moulds depending upon the requirement for the project and also under the guidance of trained supervisions. As this casting is used for small units, it can be manufactured manually depending upon the number of units to be prepared. This casting can be provided for small housing. Wet casting provides the concrete in the cube strength ranging from 21 to 50N/mm, the slump varying from 0 to 175mm with a compacting factor varying from 0.8 to 0.97.(specifications are derived from CP 110 Unified code for structural concrete) 5.1.2 Gang casting: It is usually used when the moulds are combined together into a large unit assembly. The gang casting is developed by the modification of wet castings. The gang casting could be used when the similar unit requirement is more. For example: gang casting can be used in the production of stair case in the multi storied buildings. The main factors for adopting gang casting process is because of the designed units, and the general components of concrete. The gang casting can be arranged horizontally and the outputs which are achieved from gang casting can be more enhance in the stack casting. The main advantage of gang casting is it allows the concrete to place faster and than the concrete is compacted with the help of immersion-type vibrators. The greater accuracy of the component units are produced with the gang casting. The gang moulds are tied up in series so that the pressure loading on each individual unit is counteracted by the adjacent units, by this way it reduces the number of tie members. The gang moulds can be used for long horizontal spans, but the filling of gang moulds must be carefully controlled such that the intermediate moulds are not subjected to differential loading which may cause deflections and waves along the line of moulds. (Gibb.A, 1999) 5.1.2 Stack Casting: Stack casting is the slight modification to the flat and gang casting units. In this casting process gang moulds are filled and hardened after the hardening process the divider plates are driven into the mould up to an appropriate depths so that the next layer will be ready for casting. Stack casting is used to produce A frames and can be used in the repetitive structures such as prisons constructions. All the rooms are of same size and dimensions. Precasters have found that the incorporation of through holes, barrels or by insertion of anchors allows fastening the mould sides and bring them to the subsequent positions with exact casting thickness. 5.1.3 Battery casting: It is mostly used on wider scale, battery moulds has become more popular in large concrete wall panel constructions and the casting technique is also used for the manufacture of floor slabs and for decorative cladding components. The battery casting can be used in the manufacture of L shaped components such as balcony elements and lift enclosures. In this type, the units are generally cast in batteries of two or more. The battery mould can also have eight to twelve cells in the same mould. The changes on the casting process which provides a continuous casting, hardening, and curing schedule prior to de moulding. The battery mould which basically contains a series of plates that are spaced a part by the other mould members. A Battery mould allows high density of casting to be carried in the available space. Care and proper supervision is required in the assembly operations so it results in securely tied moulds which will be impossible for the concrete member to get separate from the mould. (Richardson.J.G, 1973) 5.2. Direct Casting and Inverted Shell Procedures: The precasted concrete panels can be obtained from the flexible formwork. The fabric formwork can be used to produce two basic types of concrete panels such as direct casting and inverted shells. In the direct cast panels, the concrete moulds are formed by the sandwiching fabric between the two rectangular frames. Firstly, the lower frame has the intermediate supports place inside it. The lower frame is X- shaped intermediate supports. The fabric membrane is than prestressed between the lower and intermediate supports. Finally, the upper frame is placed over the membrane and than aligned with the lower frames. When the concrete is placed in the mould, the fabric form bends downwards and creates three dimensional tension curves between the available supports. Using the direct casting method, a single membrane can be moulded to form different varieties of designs by simply changing the design of the intermediate supports. The produced precasted frames with different designs can be used as various building components. The direct cast panel can be used as moulds to produce light weight shaft panels with compressed shells are caste from the mould. The panel has a minimum thickness of 38mm at the apex and a maximum thickness of 127mm at the perimeter and the diagonal X beams. The two glass fiber reinforced concrete panels can also be produced by optimising the same process of tilting the direct cast panel to produce a compression shell panel. The final obtained glass fibre reinforced concrete panel cast from the mould which significantly varies in thickness from 13 to 38mm. Unlimited desired number of different pattern or designs can be produced from these methods. Each intermediate supports produces its own set of compression shells. The moulds can be produced by providing the compression resistance to different load patterns by the changing the loading which is used in direct cast mould productions. This method helps in developing an architectural quality concrete finishes using the industrial concrete mixing. Also expands the architectural potential of concrete constructions. But the problem was identified that there was no suitable method for predicting the magnitude of deflections in the formwork membranes under the variety of loading and also structural behaviour of some of the structures are not examined, precise engineers may solve the problem of structural behaviour in the precast concrete panels. (West.M, April 2004) 6.Crosswall Construction Procedures Precasting the elements such as foundations, wall panels, floors, stairs, chajjas, water tanks are manufactured at the factory and they are directly installed on the site. 6.1 Foundations: The foundations along with the walls up to the plinth levels can be cast by using M20 grade concrete in the factories and further construction can be processed by using precast panels. 6.2 Precast Wall Panels: The precast wall panels can be made of concrete with the reinforcement provided as per the specifications. The wall panels can be cast in horizontal positions and than they are lifted from the casting beds after the concrete attains minimum required strengths. They are three main types of wall elements that are solid panels, panels with door openings and panels with window openings. 6.2.1 Sandwich Panels: The sandwich panel which involves a precast concrete outerleaf, and the choice of simulated stone finishes or facings, insulating layer and a blacking leaf of plane grey concrete. The insulation which is installed under the factory conditions is well protected by the concrete. The thickness of the insulation contained in the sandwich panels can be varied to achieve the required U-values. The precast concrete sandwich panels are often used for the building exteriors cladding and also serves as shear walls. The two sandwich layers are generally connected by the stainless steel connectors, which may consists of wind and the shear connectors. Several insulation types such as mineral fibre insulation materials can be used. A cavity can also be introduced if necessary. Mineral fibre insulation is environmentally friendly, fire resistant when compared to the expanded polystyrene products. The sandwich panels may support floors, slabs and beams. The main advantage of the load bearing panels is they may not require perimeter columns and instead increases the floor area and gives flush wall profiles. The applied finish panels may include terracotta, glazed bricks, tiles, granite, and limestone. A panel may incorporate more than 1000 bricks or 100 stones. (Dawson.S, 2004) The sandwich panel system which includes polystyrene insulation sandwiched between the two concrete walls. The interior of the sandwich panel is thicker because several studies as shown the thermal capacitance of benefits are greater when the thermal capacitance is within the insulation barrier (Kossecka Kossny, 2002) The two types of precast concrete panel systems are One is waffle precast concrete panel system which is currently used in the light commercial and residential industry and the other is sandwich precast concrete panel system which represents the available wall technologies which has greater thermal performance than the waffle panel system. The inner leaf of the sandwich panel may be used as a load bearing structural element for giving support to the floor units. This provides more efficiency to the construction process and minimises the need to integrate different trades. Techrete Company has manufactured the load bearing sandwich panels for Dublins city centre; the city centre was designed by OMahony Pike and for the first time the sandwich panel was used in a structural capacity on residential development. The sandwich panel provides very strong, durable, energy-efficient and fire resistant cladding systems. All the panels are manufactured in the factory and they are Just in time delivered to the site, they are enabled to provide very high quality finishes. Construction will be much faster and the load bearing walls panels they provide both structural support and external finish, the labour on site is minimised. (Taylor.P.J, 1992) Most of the precast concrete cladding system comprises of a single layered structural concrete panels which are manufactured in the factory and than installed on multi storey buildings with a weather resistant external finishes. Sandwich panel generally contains insulated material between the two precast layers. Techrete is one of the leading precast concrete manufacturers which has expanded the range and potential of the sandwiched panels. The Techrete company has introduced the precast panels in stone and bricks. The air cavity can be fixed in between the panels and they can be integrated as a part of load bearing structures. 6.2.1.1 Two-Wythe Sandwich Panels: The precast concrete slabs are constructed by two Wythes of concrete which are separated by thermal insulation layer. Two Wythes panels are provided with strong concrete which enables both lifting and handling. The solid concrete may also have catastrophic impact on the thermal performance on the precast concrete panels. The research was mainly directed towards the development of precast concrete three-Wythe sandwich panel with the improved thermal performances. Often, both the concrete Wythes are of same thickness and the surface of the exterior Wythes may include the architectural panels. The panels with two concrete Wythes and one insulated layer are referred to as two-Wythe panels. (Lee B.J,Pessiki; 2006) 6.2.1.2 Three-Wythe Sandwich Panels: The three Wythe panel which usually as three concrete Wythes and two insulated layers, those are connected by solid concrete and they are staggered in location so that no concrete path extends directly through the entire thickness of the panel. In practice, the three-Wythe panels are evaluated by estimating the thermal resistance (R-value) using the finite element methods. Three Wythe panel was developed to reduce the thermal bridges which were produced by solid concrete. Generally the thermal performance of three Wythe panel is evaluated by estimating the R-Values (thermal resistance) using finite element methods. The benefits of three Wythe panels are: The concrete connection between the Wythes allows improving the thermal performance over the two Wythe panel. The increased overall panel thickness may lead to increased span capability, this how which increases the usage of sandwiched panels. But the three-Wythe sandwiched panel may not be applicable for all scenarios because it increases the production time and production costs when compared to two sandwiched panels. On the whole three Wythes panels provide greater advantages in thermal performance than two Wythe panel but with higher cost and time productivities. (LEE, PESSIKI; 2003) 6.2.2 Tilt-Up Panels: The tilt up technique which combines the advantage of precast walls with other benefits of site casting, the size and the thickness of the panel is reduced. The tilt up construction had grown more rapidly with respect to the increase in the demands for more durable and economical buildings. The use of WWR(wire welded reinforcement) in the tilt up panels is relatively new concept. According to concrete international there are inherent advantages and disadvantages to the use of the WWR. (Griffin.J, 2003) WWR (wire welded reinforcement) mats are manufactured in the plant-controlled environment, which gives the correct number of bars that to be placed in the panels depending upon the additional drawings. In the fields the prefabricated mats give assurance that the bars do not bunch or free float together in the plane of reinforcement, step- through meshes are well maintained which offers the workers the ability to step between adjacent bars, reduction of labour on the site. Tilt up panel can be reinforced in less time because of the labour reduction. This wire welded reinforcement(WWR) may be used in joining the precast concrete walls and may finish the work very quickly without the need of excess labour and has an advantage in reducing size and thickness of the walls in multi-storey structures. 6.2.3 Double wall precast panels: Double wall building technology means that both sides of the wall and the floor components are form finished. The interior surfaces of the walls are dry and smooth, only single coat of paint may be required to achieve the look and feel the drywall finish. The exterior surfaces of the walls can be produced with variety of finishes and surface treatments. Dukane Precast Company has used the double wall technique for the low-rise residential and non residential constructions. This company has built a plant geared for low cost production of roof and wall that created safest, durable and most energy efficient building systems. The double wall building method may offer significant energy conservation by recognising thermal mass properties. The benefits of double wall panels: The double wall panel design may be a good choice for the home buyers looking primarily in cost, comfort, health benefits. The high degree of insulation provided by the panels can permit the use of smaller heating and air conditioning units, thus may save monthly operating costs of the house. (Concrete Products Staff, 2002) 6.3 Floors/Roof Panels: 6.3.1 Hollowcore Floors: Hollowcore and prestressed floors are also commonly used as floor slabs in multi-Family housing, schools, and hotels, offices which may take an advantage of span to depth ratios, high load carrying capacity, fire ratings and speed of construction. The hollow unit reduces the self weight of the slabs. These floor units may be available in 1200mm in widths depths from 110 to 400 mm. The hollow core slabs for the residential buildings may have very good span capabilities (short long span). The long span is used for the car parks and office constructions and they can exhibit upward cambers. The short spans can also be provided with a layer of the expanded polysterene on the soffit to provide the insulation for the ground floor situations. The hollowcore slabs with reinforcement can be generally 225mm deep and 1200 mm wide Termodeck Company is more specialised in providing hollow core units. (Borghoff.M, 2006) The hollow core wall panels can be installed with or without insulation. The floor units can be provided with the polysterene or poly-isocyanurate (PIR) insulation material. The benefits of using hollowcore floor units are as follows: It may include high load carrying capacity, long spans, durability, erection speed, providing instant working, and very good thermal and sound insulation, providing the floor with fire resistant properties without the need for the fire protection treatment. Hollow core units may be the ideal building material for the construction of ware houses, manufacturing plants, schools, retail stores, office buildings and administration buildings. The use of pre stressed hollow core units and the solution which may enables fast construction and it is cost effective because the secondary fire resistance treatment is not required Precast hollowcore floors are designed with up to 4 hours fire resistance by using tabulated data that gives minimum dimensions for the depth of concrete cover to the prestressing strand or wires as well as overall depth of the floor slab to be used. (Norman E Brown, Head of Engineering Services – British Precast Secretary – Precast Flooring Federation) 6.4 Transportation: The precast concrete panels can delivered to the site over the highways by semi trailer trucks. A few can be shipped by rail or other modes of transportation depending upon the feasibility of resources. The precast plants may not restrict the size and weight of the precast panel production if there is ease of transportation. The use of light weight aggregate concrete panels can minimize the impact of weight on shipping, handling and